Chapter 1 Intro

语义受 说话人、受话人(1.心情. 2.理解能力)、环境 影响

Speaker meaning 说话人语义

Utterance meaning 受话人解读出的语义

Meaning in context 字面意思

Appropriacy (从社会角度理解语言)合适性

Chapter 2 Deixis, reference and anaphora

1. Deixis[指示语]:

It concerns the relationship (in linguistic) forms between the structure of language and the context in which it is used. It refers to certain aspects of their contexts of utterance, including the role of participants in the speech event and their spatio-temporal and social location.

2. Deictic information[指示信息]:

①Intro: Bar-Hillel speculated that more than 90% of the declarative sentences people produce are indexical[indexical expressions(指引词语) depend on the context] in that they involve references to the speaker, addressee, time and place of speaking.

②Importance: for the interpretation of utterances in communication.对交流中语义阐释很重要

③Conclusion: sentences containing deictics cannot function in communication without deictic information. 没有指示信息，含指示语的句子难以在交流中正常发挥作用。[语法正确但所指意义不明，可能是指示语混乱。]

3. Deictic center[指示中心]

①Intro: 具有指示中心性(egocentricity)，即说话人是语义指示中心(但指示中心不完全固定，交流中，指示中心时长切换[说话人切换])。 因此，说话时间是中心时间central time，说话地点是中心地点central place，产生的话语(utterance)为中心语篇central discourse，说话人的社会地位或社会角色为社会中心social center；Violating the rules above will result in comic effects.

②Caution: 当对话不是面对面或与话人不在同一地点同一时间，则指示中心性会被违反。

E.g. London - New York 长途电话: 

       A: Good morning. B: Good afternoon.

4. Deictic projection[指示投射](Lyons) = shift in point of view(Fillmore) = derivative usages(Levinson) = a shift in deictic perspective(Verschueren)

①occasion: 在使用表示动作的动词(take & bring/go & come)时使用指示投射。

5. Deictic expressions[指示词语]

①deictic usage指示用法：1.gestural usage身势用法 2.symbolic usage象征用法

 1.Gestural usage: more specific reference更多特指，用于面对面交流

 2.Symbolic usage: 用于不确定对象时

 ②non-deictic usage非指示用法：

 1.anaphoric(前指)照应用法[词语所指与前面出现词语所指为同一对象] 

 2.non-anaphoric非照应用法

  i.(前指)照应用法：指示语将以非指示用法的方式使用。

      运作方式：对象 - 被词所指 - 先行词 - 互指

E.g. My friend look up when he came in. 此处friend和he互指，he前指(照应)

       When he came in, my friend looked up. 此处互指且后指(cataphoric)

        He came in and my friend looked up. 此处无互指且无前后指，为指示用法。

（指示用法：指示语不需要先行词）

Discourse connector语篇连接词(独立两个动作，翻译时要突出动作独立性) / ordinary connectives 普通连接词

6. 指示语分类Categories

  ①traditional: person/place/time

  ②Fillmore’s: person/place/time/discourse/social

Chapter 3 Speech act theory(By John Austin)

1. Categories:

①locution言内行为(字面意思): what is said

②illocution言外行为(说话人意图): what is meant

③perlocution言后行为(话语导致的行为): outcome

2. Speech act theory categories:

①Declarations(speaker changes reality)

②representatives(express speaker’s view and thoughts)

③expressive(express speaker’s attitude and emotions)

④commissives(Commits speaker to future action)

⑤directives(cause hearer to take action)

⑥rogatives(interrogatives)(cause hearer to respond)

3. Performative speech act: SAT讲求felicity conditions(合适条件)，而不是真实条件(truth conditions). 而合适条件分为4部分:

  ①preparatory condition(听者能做到预期动作)

  ②sincerity condition(说者有让听者做事的需求)

  ③propositional condition(说者对听者动作有预设，说者确定听者能做)

  ④essential condition(说者除了这个意图并无他意)

4. Indirect speech act: 言外行为通过其他行为间接完成。

  ①(主要)primary illocutionary act: indirect force 间接力

  ②(次要)secondary illocutionary act: literal force 字面力

 Indirect SA有5类不同表达所产生的言外之力，其字面理解也不同。

(1.direct order[祈使句] 2.refer to hearer’s ability[could] 3.project in a hypothetical perspective hearer’s action, willingness[would] 4.refer to hearer’s wants[mind] 5.implicitly mention an unsatisfied precondition of the desired act[陈述事实])

Chapter 4 Inferential Pragmatics 推理语用学

1. Meaning and intention:

A: Analysis of meaning and intention:

  ①meaning n(natural meaning): A means that B entails B’

  ②meaning nn(non0natural meaning): A means that B 不一定entails B’s

B: Two kinds of meaning by Grice:

  ①sentence meaning句子字面意思

  ②utterance meaning说话人意图

2. Types of implicatures(Grice 提出)

Common: both convey an additional level of meaning beyond the semantic meaning of the linguistic expression uttered.(两种表达都有语义外的附加意思)

Difference: conventional语义不受语言语境影响；conversational语言含义随不同语境变化。

  ①conventional implicatures规约性含义(与语言学词汇有关，从词汇中派生出该含义)

  ②conversational implicatures会话含义(与语境有关，遵守合作原则假设)

Features: cancellability可取消性 / Non-conventionality不受规约/ calculability可推导性/ Non-detachability不可分离性/ indeterminacy不确定性

  i.generalized conversational implicatures (GCI) 一般会话含义(字面意思)

  Definition: refers to implicature that are normally carried by the use of a certain lexical item    or expression, in the absence of special circumstances.

  E.g. An elephant is bigger than an ant. (implicature: I believe and I have evidence that...)

  ii.particularized conversational implicatures (PCI) 特殊会话含义(句子隐含意思)

3. Cooperative principles: attempt to explain how Hearer gets from what is said to what is meant.

CP假设，在所有其他条件相同的情况下，说话人将根据其参与的谈话交流的公认目的或方向，在对话发生的阶段作出必要的贡献。(Speaker will make his conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which he is engaged.)

Maxims of interaction:

①Quantity: 足够的信息量   ②Quality: 足够的真实性   ③Relation: 与话题相关

④Manner: 表达清晰[1.avoid obscurity of expression避免模糊表达 2.avoid ambiguity避免歧义 3.be brief简短 4.be orderly有条理]

4. Disobeying the maxims(purposefully, 因为可以表达字面意思以外更多的含义)

①violating maxim = failing to obey it. Misleading,用于daily conversation and trials, political speeches & arguments(相当于欺骗、误导)

②clash of maxim: E.g. 语义信息量&真实性的冲突(知道某地位置但无法指路)

③Suspending maxims(悬置准则): 用于某些特定文化、事件non-observance of any maxim(由于情境不需要[no expectation]使用/遵守4准则): 如悼词/讣告

④Infringing maxims: unintentionally/non-deliberately fails to obey the maxim. E.g.小孩/醉鬼

⑤Opting out of maxims: speaker says that he is unwilling to cooperate.不愿合作

⑥Flouting maxims: make deliberate &conscious decision to not follow a maxim(S&H都知情并且S表隐含意思，H仅猜测隐含意思)最典型.

Chapter 5 Informational Pragmatics(focus on discourse pragmatics or information structure)

1. Foreground/background/common-ground

①Common ground: a subset of background assumptions that are relevant to communication because it is believed to be in common amongst the participants involved.相关与话人的共同点.

认定共同知识的条件: 1.socio-cultural knowledge社会文化知识 2.personal experiences个人经历

②Structural background: Presupposition预设

1.Everyday notion of presupposition: any knid of background assumption against which an action, theory, expression or utterance makes sense or is rational.任何一种背景假设，一个动作、理论、表达或话语是有意义的或是合理的。

2.Technical presupposition: certain inference or assumptions that are built into linguistic expressions and which can be isolated using specific linguistic tests, especially and traditionally, constancy under negation(否定保持). 技术预设：语言表达中的某些推理或假设，可以通过特定的语言测试加以分离，尤其是传统上的否定恒常性。

预设分类：

1. specific existential: a definite noun phrase

2. non-specific existential: WH-questions

3. Factive: factive emotive verbs/epistemic verbs

4. non-factive: non-factive verbs

5. counter factive: counterfactual verbs/counterfactual conditions

6. Other: implicate verbs/change-of-state verbs/iteratives(adverbs and verbs)/temporal clauses

③foreground & background: 区别在于figure & ground

Features:

Foreground:1.discourse new information 2.active information 3.participant new information 4.sentence asserted information 5.focus of the sentence information

Background:1.discourse old information(previously mentioned) 2.Non-active information (active in participant’s mind) 3.participant old information(already known by a participant) 4.sentence presupposed information 5.topic sentence information

Chapter 6 Politeness and Facework

1. Face: an image of self delineated in terms of Approved social attributes.(根据认可的社会属性描绘的自我形象) The concept of face is perhaps best thought of as our feeling of self-image, which can be “damaged, maintained or enhanced through interaction with others.” It is a socio-psychological construct(社会心理结构) akin to the external image(外在形象) created with the given context. We also negotiate this self-image amongst each other.自己认知≠他人评价

2. Facework: behavior aimed at “maintaining the ritual order of social life”, and can be supportive or aggressive, but follow the “ground-rules of social interaction” in being aware of other’s face. 旨在“维护社会生活仪式秩序”，支持性/攻击性，遵循“社会互动的基本规则”

3. Politeness theories(social harmony is the goal of communication)

Im/politeness1

①first order im/politeness: notion of politeness as held by ordinary lay users.(普通人的概念)

②Im/politeness investigation are typically descriptive.(注重功能)

③Im/politeness = first order / social norm im/politeness(社会规范礼貌/不礼貌)

Im/politeness2  

①second order im/politeness(focus on form注重形式)=second order / linguistic im/politeness: consist of scientific theories and models attempting to be predictive.

4. Negative face: the want of everyone’s actions be unimpeded by others.

     (不希望别人强加于自己，表达个体对自由自主的需求)

   Positive face: the want of everyone’s wants to be desirable to at least some others.

     (希望得到他人赞同&喜爱，表达个人社会性需求)

5. Face threatening acts[FTAs](基于言语行为理论SAT, 根本上为言外行为[说话人意图])

面子威胁(除了言外行为)还受到3个因素影响：

1. power(说话人对于受话人的各类权威)

2. distance(说话人&受话人的社会关系疏离度)

3. ranking(不合理要求的尺度)

公式: P(s,h)+D(h,s)+Rx = Wx

①Positive FTAs:

①To H: 1.criticism 2.complaints 3.disagreement

②To S: 1.apologies 2.confessions

②Negative FTAs:

①To H: 1.orders 2.requests 3.threats

②To S: 1.thanks 2.unwilling offer/promises

实施面子威胁的方式4选项：(从上至下变礼貌)

①Perform the FTA bald -on-record(直接威胁)

②Perform the FTA on-record using positive politeness(积极礼貌策略)

③Perform the FTA on-record using negative politeness(消极礼貌策略)

④Perform the FTA using off-record strategies(间接言外行为威胁)

⑤不采取面子威胁

6. Leech’s politeness principle(意图维护交际和谐&补充CP)

Content: Interlocuter will minimize the expression of impolite beliefs and maximize the expression of politeness belief.

Distinction: CP: how to convey indirect meanings(如何表隐含意思); PP: why to convey indirect meanings(为何表隐含意思)

Maxims of PP:

①Tact(得体): 对方少损/多益

②Generosity(慷慨): 自己多损/少益

③Approbation: 对方多夸/少批

④Modesty: 自己少夸/多批

⑤Agreement: -------}减少分歧

⑥Sympathy: ---------}多同意

礼貌学家认为不礼貌是正常行为(normal circumstance)的偏差，Leech认为“正常行为”难定义.

PP的问题: conflictive illocutions tend to be rather marginal to human linguistic behavior in normal circumstance.(冲突性言辞过于边缘化), Culpeper认为可以用语言制造不和谐(disharmony).

Chapter 7 Impoliteness

1. Types of impoliteness(E.g.rudeness/conflict/face-attack/impoliteness/incivility)

①rudeness(unintentional absence of Appropriately polite behavior), faux pas, failed politeness(Speaker intends to convey a polite attitude but offend Hearer because H misjudges the degree or type of politeness that H, or the situation requires.): Based on Hearer’s interpretation.(1.进行了礼貌表达但受话人误判 2.受话人知其无意但仍受冒犯)

②Ritual or mock impoliteness: an offensive way of being friendly(不带恶意/不制造分歧)

③Non-malicious or incidental impoliteness: a by-product of Speaker undertaking a task at hand(本无恶意但不小心附带)

④Genuine, malicious, strategic impoliteness, instrumental rudeness: acts carried out by Speaker with the intention of offending Hearer.(恶意且不礼貌)

2.  3 types of Malicious impoliteness

①Successful malicious impoliteness(SMI): 1.不礼貌 2.受话人听懂

②Failed MI: 1.受话人误判 2.说话人未表达清楚

③Frustrated MI: 受话人听懂但不觉得被冒犯

3. Conclusion:

①First generation Approaches:

1. Lachenicht’s Aggravating Language Framework(ALF)

2. Austin’s Face-Attack Approach(FAA): FA is a corruption of principles of face preservation.

3. Culpeper’s Impoliteness Framework(S&H based):与Politeness Theory镜像